CISSP ISC Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) Free Practice Exam Questions (2025 Updated)

The main purpose of a change management policy is to ensure that all changes made to the IT infrastructure are approved, documented, and communicated effectively across the organization. This helps to minimize the risks associated with unauthorized or poorly planned changes, such as security breaches, system failures, or compliance issues. A change management policy does not assure management that changes are necessary, identify the changes that may be made, or determine the necessity for implementing modifications, although these may be part of the change management process. References: CISSP CBK Reference

 The activity that is part of the data analysis phase when conducting a security assessment of access controls is to categorize and identify evidence gathered during the audit. A security assessment of access controls is a process that evaluates the effectiveness and compliance of the access controls implemented in a system or an organization. A security assessment of access controls typically consists of four phases: planning, data collection, data analysis, and reporting. The data analysis phase is the phase where the collected data is processed, interpreted, and evaluated, based on the audit objectives, criteria, and standards. The data analysis phase involves activities such as categorizing and identifying evidence gathered during the audit, which means sorting and labeling the data according to their type, source, and relevance, and verifying their validity, reliability, and sufficiency. Presenting solutions to address audit exceptions, conducting statistical sampling of data transactions, and collecting logs and reports are not activities that are part of the data analysis phase, but of the reporting, data collection, and data collection phases, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 75; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 67.

Attending a cybersecurity seminar to learn about current incident response methodologies aligns with the ethical canon of advancing and protecting the profession. It involves enhancing one’s knowledge and skills, contributing to the growth and integrity of the field, and staying abreast of the latest developments and best practices in information security. References: ISC² Code of Ethics

 The most appropriate method for protecting the confidentiality of data stored on a hard drive is to use the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). AES is a symmetric encryption algorithm that uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data. AES can provide strong and efficient encryption for data at rest, as it uses a block cipher that operates on fixed-size blocks of data, and it supports various key sizes, such as 128, 192, or 256 bits. AES can protect the confidentiality of data stored on a hard drive by transforming the data into an unreadable form that can only be accessed by authorized parties who possess the correct key. AES can also provide some degree of integrity and authentication, as it can detect any modification or tampering of the encrypted data. Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES), Message Digest 5 (MD5), and Secure Hash Algorithm 2 (SHA-2) are not the most appropriate methods for protecting the confidentiality of data stored on a hard drive, although they may be related or useful cryptographic techniques. 3DES is a symmetric encryption algorithm that uses three iterations of the Data Encryption Standard (DES) algorithm with two or three different keys to encrypt and decrypt data. 3DES can provide encryption for data at rest, but it is not as strong or efficient as AES, as it uses a smaller key size (56 bits per iteration), and it is slower and more complex than AES. MD5 is a hash function that produces a fixed-length output (128 bits) from a variable-length input. MD5 does not provide encryption for data at rest, as it does not use any key to transform the data, and it cannot be reversed to recover the original data. MD5 can provide some integrity for data at rest, as it can verify if the data has been changed or corrupted, but it is not secure or reliable, as it is vulnerable to collisions and pre-image attacks. SHA-2 is a hash function that produces a fixed-length output (224, 256, 384, or 512 bits) from a variable-length input. SHA-2 does not provide encryption for data at rest, as it does not use any key to transform the data, and it cannot be reversed to recover the original data. SHA-2 can provide integrity for data at rest, as it can verify if the data has been changed or corrupted, and it is more secure and reliable than MD5, as it is resistant to collisions and pre-image attacks.

 Equipment is a direct monetary cost of a security incident. A direct monetary cost is a cost that can be easily measured and attributed to a specific security incident, such as the cost of repairing or replacing damaged or stolen equipment, the cost of hiring external experts or consultants, the cost of paying fines or penalties, or the cost of compensating the victims or customers. Equipment is a direct monetary cost of a security incident, as the security incident may cause physical or logical damage to the equipment, such as servers, computers, routers, or firewalls, or may result in the loss or theft of the equipment. The cost of equipment can be calculated by estimating the market value, the depreciation value, or the replacement value of the equipment, as well as the cost of installation, configuration, or integration of the equipment. Morale, reputation, and information are not direct monetary costs of a security incident, although they are important and significant costs. Morale is an indirect or intangible cost of a security incident, as it affects the psychological or emotional state of the employees, customers, or stakeholders, and may lead to lower productivity, satisfaction, or loyalty. Reputation is an indirect or intangible cost of a security incident, as it affects the public perception or image of the organization, and may result in loss of trust, confidence, or credibility. Information is an indirect or intangible cost of a security incident, as it affects the value or quality of the data or knowledge of the organization, and may result in loss of confidentiality, integrity, or availability. Indirect or intangible costs are costs that are difficult to measure or quantify, and may have long-term or hidden impacts on the organization. 

 Cookie manipulation is a technique that allows an attacker to intercept, modify, or forge a cookie, which is a piece of data that is used to maintain the state of a web session. By manipulating the cookie, the attacker can hijack the session and gain unauthorized access to the web application. Known-plaintext attack, DoS, and SQL injection are not directly related to session hijacking, although they can be used for other purposes, such as breaking encryption, disrupting availability, or executing malicious commands. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, page 729; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 522.

It is most important to perform a schedule negotiation with the IT operation’s team to minimize the potential impact when implementing a new vulnerability scanning tool in a production environment. This is because a vulnerability scan can cause network congestion, performance degradation, or system instability, which can affect the availability and functionality of the production systems. Therefore, it is essential to coordinate with the IT operation’s team to determine the best time and frequency for the scan, as well as the scope and intensity of the scan. Logging vulnerability summary reports, enabling scanning during off-peak hours, and establishing access for IT management are also good practices for vulnerability scanning, but they are not as important as negotiating the schedule with the IT operation’s team. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Assessment and Testing, page 858; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6: Security Assessment and Testing, page 794.

 Risk tolerance is the factor that mandates the amount and complexity of security controls applied to a security risk. Risk tolerance is the degree of risk that an organization or an individual is willing to accept or bear, based on their objectives, expectations, and capabilities. Risk tolerance can be influenced by various factors, such as the organizational culture, the regulatory environment, the stakeholder interests, the cost-benefit analysis, and the risk appetite. Risk tolerance can help to determine the acceptable level of residual risk and the appropriate risk response for each risk scenario. Security controls are the measures or actions that are implemented to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, or to transfer, avoid, or accept the risk. Security controls can be classified into different types, such as administrative, technical, physical, preventive, detective, corrective, deterrent, or compensating. Security controls can also be categorized into different levels, such as management, operational, or technical. The amount and complexity of security controls applied to a security risk depend on the risk tolerance of the organization or the individual, as well as the risk assessment results and the security requirements. Security vulnerabilities, risk mitigation, and security staff are not the factors that mandate the amount and complexity of security controls applied to a security risk, although they are related or relevant concepts. Security vulnerabilities are the weaknesses or flaws in the assets, systems, or processes that can be exploited by the threats to cause harm or damage. Security vulnerabilities can increase the risk level and the need for security controls. Risk mitigation is the process of selecting and implementing the appropriate security controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, or to transfer, avoid, or accept the risk. Risk mitigation is based on the risk tolerance and the risk assessment results. Security staff are the personnel who are responsible for planning, implementing, maintaining, and monitoring the security controls and processes within an organization. Security staff can affect the quality and effectiveness of the security controls. 

Before performing the next step in an incident response, it must be considered or evaluated that removing the server from the network may prevent catching the intruder who has planted a backdoor. This is because the intruder may still be connected to the server or may try to reconnect later, and disconnecting the server may alert the intruder or lose the opportunity to trace the intruder’s source or identity. Therefore, it may be better to isolate the server from the network or monitor the network traffic to gather more evidence and information about the intruder. Notifying law enforcement, identifying who executed the incident, and copying the contents of the hard drive are not the factors that must be considered or evaluated before performing the next step, as they are either irrelevant or premature at this stage of the incident response. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, page 973; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8: Security Operations, page 1019.

The security mode that is most commonly used in a commercial environment because it protects the integrity of financial and accounting data is Clark-Wilson. A security mode is a formal model or framework that defines the rules and principles for implementing and enforcing security policies and controls on a system or a network. A security mode can be based on various criteria or objectives, such as confidentiality, integrity, availability, or accountability. Clark-Wilson is a security mode that focuses on the integrity of data and transactions, and is designed to prevent unauthorized or improper modifications or tampering of data. Clark-Wilson is based on the concept of separation of duties, which requires that different roles or functions are assigned to different parties, and that no single party can perform all the steps of a transaction or a process. Clark-Wilson also involves the concept of well-formed transactions, which requires that all the transactions or operations on data are consistent, complete, and verifiable, and that they preserve the state and the validity of the data. Clark-Wilson can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the accuracy and reliability of the data and the transactions, preventing fraud or errors, and supporting the audit and compliance activities. Clark-Wilson is most commonly used in a commercial environment because it protects the integrity of financial and accounting data, which are critical and sensitive for the business operations and performance of the organization. Clark-Wilson can help to ensure that the financial and accounting data are accurate, consistent, and valid, and that they reflect the true and fair view of the financial position and results of the organization. Clark-Wilson can also help to prevent or detect any unauthorized or improper modifications or tampering of the financial and accounting data, such as embezzlement, falsification, or manipulation, which may cause financial losses or legal liabilities for the organization. Biba, Graham-Denning, and Beil-LaPadula are not the security modes that are most commonly used in a commercial environment because they protect the integrity of financial and accounting data, although they may be related or useful security modes. Biba is a security mode that focuses on the integrity of data and transactions, and is designed to prevent unauthorized or improper modifications or tampering of data. Biba is based on the concept of no read down and no write up, which requires that a subject can only read data of lower or equal integrity level, and can only write data of higher or equal integrity level. Biba can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the accuracy and reliability of the data and the transactions, preventing corruption or contamination, and supporting the audit and compliance activities. However, Biba is not the security mode that is most commonly used in a commercial environment

Section: Security Operations

The best reason for the use of security metrics is to quantify the effectiveness of security processes. Security metrics are measurable indicators that provide information about the performance, efficiency, and quality of security activities, controls, and outcomes. Security metrics can help to evaluate the current state of security, identify strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress and trends, and support decision making and improvement. Security metrics can also help to demonstrate the value and return on investment of security to the stakeholders, and to communicate the security objectives and expectations to the users. Security metrics can be based on various criteria, such as compliance, risk, cost, time, or customer satisfaction. Security metrics can be classified into different types, such as implementation metrics, effectiveness/efficiency metrics, and impact metrics. Security metrics can be collected, analyzed, and reported using various methods and tools, such as surveys, audits, logs, dashboards, or scorecards. Ensuring that the organization meets its security objectives, providing an appropriate framework for IT governance, and speeding up the process of quantitative risk assessment are all possible benefits or uses of security metrics, but they are not the best reason for the use of security metrics. Security metrics are not the only means to ensure that the organization meets its security objectives, as security objectives can also be influenced by other factors, such as policies, standards, procedures, or culture. Security metrics are not the only component of IT governance, as IT governance also involves other elements, such as leadership, strategy, structure, processes, or roles. Security metrics are not the only factor that can speed up the process of quantitative risk assessment, as quantitative risk assessment also depends on other inputs, such as asset value, threat frequency, vulnerability severity, or control effectiveness.

A common characteristic of privacy is notice to the subject of the existence of a database containing relevant credit card data. Privacy is the right or the expectation of an individual or a group to control or limit the collection, use, disclosure, or retention of their personal or sensitive information by others. Privacy can involve various principles or tenets that are shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or PIPEDA. One of the common privacy principles or tenets is notice, which requires that the data subject or the individual whose information is collected or processed should be informed or notified of the following aspects:

The existence of a database or a system that contains their information, such as credit card data, health records, or biometric data.

The purpose or the reason for collecting or processing their information, such as billing, marketing, or research.

The identity or the contact details of the data controller or the party who is responsible for collecting or processing their information, such as a company, an organization, or a government agency.

The rights or the choices of the data subject regarding their information, such as the right to access, correct, delete, or withdraw their information.

Notice can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the transparency and the accountability of the data collection or processing activities, respecting the consent and the preferences of the data subject, and supporting the compliance and the enforcement of the privacy laws or regulations. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data, process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site, and database requirements for integration of privacy data are not common characteristics of privacy, although they may be related or important aspects of privacy. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data is a technique that involves recording and storing the logs or the records of the events or the activities that occur on a database or a system that contains private data, such as who accessed, modified, or deleted the data, when, where, how, and why. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the visibility and the traceability of the data access or processing activities, preventing or detecting any unauthorized or improper access or processing, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data is not a common characteristic of privacy, as it is not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and it may vary depending on the type or the nature of the private data. Process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site is a technique that involves providing a mechanism or a procedure for the data subject to access and verify their personal data that is stored or processed on a database or a system, and to request or make any changes or corrections if needed, such as updating their name, address, or email. Process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the accuracy and the reliability of the personal data, respecting the rights and the interests of the data subject, and supporting the compliance and the enforcement of the privacy laws or regulations. However, process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site is not a common characteristic of privacy, as it is not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and it may vary depending on the type or the nature of the personal data. Database requirements for integration of privacy data are the specifications or the criteria that a database or a system that contains or processes privacy data should meet or comply with, such as the design, the architecture, the functionality, or the security of the database or the system. Database requirements for integration of privacy data can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the performance and the functionality of the database or the system, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, database requirements for integration of privacy data are not a common characteristic of privacy, as they are not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and they may vary depending on the type or the nature of the privacy data. 

Section: Security Operations

Log analysis is the most essential method to recognize a system attack. Log analysis is the process of collecting, reviewing, and interpreting the records of events and activities that occur on a system or a network. Logs can provide valuable information and evidence about the source, nature, and impact of an attack, as well as the actions and responses of the system or the network. Log analysis can help to detect and analyze anomalies, patterns, trends, and indicators of compromise, as well as to identify and correlate the root cause, scope, and severity of an attack. Log analysis can also help to support incident response, forensic investigation, audit, and compliance activities. Log analysis requires the use of appropriate tools, techniques, and procedures, as well as the implementation of effective log management practices, such as log generation, collection, storage, retention, protection, and disposal. Stateful firewall, distributed antivirus, and passive honeypot are not the methods that must be in place to recognize a system attack, although they may be related or useful techniques. Stateful firewall is a type of network security device that monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing network traffic based on the state, context, and rules of the network connections. Stateful firewall can help to prevent or mitigate some types of attacks, such as denial-of-service, spoofing, or port scanning, by filtering or blocking the packets that do not match the established or expected state of the connection. However, stateful firewall is not sufficient to recognize a system attack, as it may not be able to detect or analyze the attacks that bypass or exploit the firewall rules, such as application-layer attacks, encryption-based attacks, or insider attacks. Distributed antivirus is a type of malware protection solution that uses a centralized server and multiple agents or clients to scan, detect, and remove malware from the systems or the network. Distributed antivirus can help to prevent or mitigate some types of attacks, such as viruses, worms, or ransomware, by updating and applying the malware signatures, heuristics, or behavioral analysis to the systems or the network. However, distributed antivirus is not sufficient to recognize a system attack, as it may not be able to detect or analyze the attacks that evade or disable the antivirus solution, such as zero-day attacks, polymorphic malware, or rootkits. Passive honeypot is a type of decoy system or network that mimics the real system or network and attracts the attackers to interact with it, while monitoring and recording their activities. Passive honeypot can help to divert or distract some types of attacks, such as reconnaissance, scanning, or probing, by providing false or misleading information to the attackers, while collecting valuable intelligence about their techniques, tools, or motives. However, passive honeypot is not sufficient to recognize a system attack, as it may not be able to detect or analyze the attacks that target the real system or network, or that avoid or identify the honeypot.

 Code quality, security, and origin are important criteria when designing procedures and acceptance criteria for acquired software. Code quality refers to the degree to which the software meets the functional and nonfunctional requirements, as well as the standards and best practices for coding. Security refers to the degree to which the software protects the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the data and the system. Origin refers to the source and ownership of the software, as well as the licensing and warranty terms. Architecture, hardware, and firmware are not criteria for acquired software, but for the system that hosts the software. Data quality, provenance, and scaling are not criteria for acquired software, but for the data that the software processes. Distributed, agile, and bench testing are not criteria for acquired software, but for the software development and testing methods. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, page 947; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7: Software Development Security, page 869.

The greatest impact on security for the network is that the ICS is now accessible from the office network. This means that the ICS is exposed to more potential threats and vulnerabilities from the internet and the office network, such as malware, unauthorized access, data leakage, or denial-of-service attacks. The ICS may also have different security requirements and standards than the office network, such as availability, reliability, and safety. Therefore, connecting the ICS to the office network increases the risk of compromising the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the ICS and the critical infrastructure it controls. The other options are not as significant as the increased attack surface and complexity of the network. References: Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security | NIST, page 2-1; Industrial Control Systems | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, page 1.

 One of the responsibilities of the information owner is to define proper access to the Information System (IS), including privileges or access rights. This involves determining who can access the data, what they can do with the data, and under what conditions they can access the data. The information owner must also approve or deny the access requests and periodically review the access rights. Ensuring that users and personnel complete the required security training, managing the common security controls, and ensuring the IS is operated according to the security requirements are not the responsibilities of the information owner, but they may involve the information owner’s collaboration or consultation. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 48; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 40.

Purging is the process of removing sensitive data from a system or storage device with the intent that the data cannot be reconstructed by any known technique. Purging is also known as sanitization, erasure, or wiping, and it is a security measure to prevent unauthorized access, disclosure, or misuse of the data. Purging can be performed by using software tools or physical methods that overwrite, degauss, or destroy the data and the storage media. Purging is required when the system or storage device is decommissioned, disposed, transferred, or reused, and the data is no longer needed or has a high level of sensitivity or classification. Encryption, destruction, and clearing are not the same as purging, although they may be related or complementary processes. Encryption is the process of transforming data into an unreadable form by using a secret key or algorithm. Encryption can protect the data from unauthorized access or disclosure, but it does not remove the data from the system or storage device. The encrypted data can still be recovered if the key or algorithm is compromised or broken. Destruction is the process of physically damaging or disintegrating the system or storage device to the point that it is unusable and irreparable. Destruction can prevent the data from being reconstructed, but it may not be feasible, cost-effective, or environmentally friendly. Clearing is the process of removing data from a system or storage device by using logical techniques, such as overwriting or deleting. Clearing can protect the data from unauthorized access by normal means, but it does not prevent the data from being reconstructed by using advanced techniques, such as forensic analysis or data recovery tools. 

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data. Security process data is the data that reflects the performance, effectiveness, and compliance of the security processes, such as the security policies, standards, procedures, and guidelines. Security process data can include metrics, indicators, logs, reports, and assessments. Security process data can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system by providing the visibility and awareness of the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is the program that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of the system. Security continuous monitoring can enable the system to detect and respond to any security issues or incidents in a timely and effective manner, and to adjust and improve the security controls and processes accordingly. Security continuous monitoring can also help the system to comply with the security requirements and standards from the internal or external authorities or frameworks.

The other options are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, but rather programs that have other objectives or scopes. Quarterly access reviews are programs that involve reviewing and verifying the user accounts and access rights on a quarterly basis. Quarterly access reviews can ensure that the user accounts and access rights are valid, authorized, and up to date, and that any inactive, expired, or unauthorized accounts or rights are removed or revoked. However, quarterly access reviews are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because they are not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the user accounts and access rights. Business continuity testing is a program that involves testing and validating the business continuity plan (BCP) and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) of the system. Business continuity testing can ensure that the system can continue or resume its critical functions and operations in case of a disruption or disaster, and that the system can meet the recovery objectives and requirements. However, business continuity testing is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the continuity and recovery of the system. Annual security training is a program that involves providing and updating the security knowledge and skills of the system users and staff on an annual basis. Annual security training can increase the security awareness and competence of the system users and staff, and reduce the human errors or risks that might compromise the system security. However, annual security training is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the security education and training of the system users and staff.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation. A VM environment is a system that allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical machine, each with its own OS and applications. A VM environment can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the utilization and efficiency of the physical resources by sharing them among multiple VMs

Enhancing the security and isolation of the VMs by preventing or limiting the interference or communication between them

Increasing the flexibility and scalability of the VMs by allowing them to be created, modified, deleted, or migrated easily and quickly

A guest OS is the OS that runs on a VM, which is different from the host OS that runs on the physical machine. A guest OS can have its own security controls and mechanisms, such as access controls, encryption, authentication, and audit logs. Audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur within a system or a network, such as the access and usage of the data files. Audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the system or network behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, because they can provide the most accurate and relevant information about the user’s actions and interactions with the data files on the VM. Guest OS audit logs can also help the administrator to identify and report any unauthorized or suspicious access or disclosure of the data files, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, but rather what an administrator might review for other purposes or aspects. Host VM monitor audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur on the host VM monitor, which is the software or hardware component that manages and controls the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM monitor audit logs can provide information about the performance, status, and configuration of the VMs, but they cannot provide information about the user’s access to data files on the VMs. Guest OS access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the resources and services on the guest OS. Guest OS access controls can provide a proactive and preventive layer of security by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, guest OS access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the data files. Host VM access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM access controls can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security by defining and assigning the roles and permissions according to the organizational structure and policies. However, host VM access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the VMs.

Remote access audit logs could cause a Denial of Service (DoS) against an authentication system. A DoS attack is a type of attack that aims to disrupt or degrade the availability or performance of a system or a network by overwhelming it with excessive or malicious traffic or requests. An authentication system is a system that verifies the identity and credentials of the users or entities that want to access the system or network resources or services. An authentication system can use various methods or factors to authenticate the users or entities, such as passwords, tokens, certificates, biometrics, or behavioral patterns.

Remote access audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur when the users or entities access the system or network remotely, such as via the internet, VPN, or dial-up. Remote access audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the remote access behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Remote access audit logs could cause a DoS against an authentication system, because they could consume a large amount of disk space, memory, or bandwidth on the authentication system, especially if the remote access is frequent, intensive, or malicious. This could affect the performance or functionality of the authentication system, and prevent or delay the legitimate users or entities from accessing the system or network resources or services. For example, an attacker could launch a DoS attack against an authentication system by sending a large number of fake or invalid remote access requests, and generating a large amount of remote access audit logs that fill up the disk space or memory of the authentication system, and cause it to crash or slow down.

The other options are not the factors that could cause a DoS against an authentication system, but rather the factors that could improve or protect the authentication system. Encryption of audit logs is a technique that involves using a cryptographic algorithm and a key to transform the audit logs into an unreadable or unintelligible format, that can only be reversed or decrypted by authorized parties. Encryption of audit logs can enhance the security and confidentiality of the audit logs by preventing unauthorized access or disclosure of the sensitive information in the audit logs. However, encryption of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or privacy of the audit logs. No archiving of audit logs is a practice that involves not storing or transferring the audit logs to a separate or external storage device or location, such as a tape, disk, or cloud. No archiving of audit logs can reduce the security and availability of the audit logs by increasing the risk of loss or damage of the audit logs, and limiting the access or retrieval of the audit logs. However, no archiving of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the availability or preservation of the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs is a technique that involves using a hash function, such as MD5 or SHA, to generate a fixed-length and unique value, called a hash or a digest, that represents the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs can improve the security and integrity of the audit logs by verifying the authenticity or consistency of the audit logs, and detecting any modification or tampering of the audit logs. However, hashing of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or verification of the audit logs.

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure. Security testing is a process that involves evaluating and verifying the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats of a system or a network, using various methods and techniques, such as vulnerability assessment, penetration testing, code review, and compliance checks. Security testing can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps

Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting

Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

A security testing report is a document that summarizes and communicates the findings and recommendations of the security testing process to the relevant stakeholders, such as the technical and management teams. A security testing report can have various formats and structures, depending on the scope, purpose, and audience of the report. However, a formalized security testing report format and structure is one that follows a standard and consistent template, such as the one proposed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the Special Publication 800-115, Technical Guide to Information Security Testing and Assessment. A formalized security testing report format and structure can have several components, such as:

Executive summary: a brief overview of the security testing objectives, scope, methodology, results, and conclusions

Introduction: a detailed description of the security testing background, purpose, scope, assumptions, limitations, and constraints

Methodology: a detailed explanation of the security testing approach, techniques, tools, and procedures

Results: a detailed presentation of the security testing findings, such as the vulnerabilities, threats, risks, and impact levels, organized by test phases or categories

Recommendations: a detailed proposal of the security testing suggestions, such as the remediation, mitigation, or prevention strategies, prioritized by impact levels or risk ratings

Conclusion: a brief summary of the security testing outcomes, implications, and future steps

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, because it can ensure that the security testing report is clear, comprehensive, and consistent, and that it provides the relevant and useful information for the technical and management teams to make informed and effective decisions and actions regarding the system or network security.

The other options are not the primary benefits of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but rather secondary or specific benefits for different audiences or purposes. Executive audiences will understand the outcomes of testing and most appropriate next steps for corrective actions to be taken is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the executive summary component of the report, which is a brief and high-level overview of the report, rather than the entire report. Technical teams will understand the testing objectives, testing strategies applied, and business risk associated with each vulnerability is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the methodology and results components of the report, which are more technical and detailed parts of the report, rather than the entire report. Management teams will understand the testing objectives and reputational risk to the organization is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the introduction and conclusion components of the report, which are more contextual and strategic parts of the report, rather than the entire report.

Operating System (OS) baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations. OS baselines are standard or reference configurations that define the desired and secure state of an OS, including the settings, parameters, patches, and updates. OS baselines can provide several benefits, such as:

Improving the security and compliance of the OS by applying the best practices and recommendations from the vendors, authorities, or frameworks

Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the OS by optimizing the resources and functions

Increasing the consistency and uniformity of the OS by reducing the variations and deviations

Facilitating the monitoring and auditing of the OS by providing a baseline for comparison and measurement

OS baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they can enable the auditors to evaluate and verify the current and actual state of the OS against the desired and secure state of the OS. OS baselines can also help the auditors to identify and report any gaps, issues, or risks in the OS configurations, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, but rather of assistance for other purposes or aspects. Change management processes are processes that ensure that any changes to the system configurations are planned, approved, implemented, and documented in a controlled and consistent manner. Change management processes can improve the security and reliability of the system configurations by preventing or reducing the errors, conflicts, or disruptions that might occur due to the changes. However, change management processes are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the procedures and controls for managing the changes. User administration procedures are procedures that define the roles, responsibilities, and activities for creating, modifying, deleting, and managing the user accounts and access rights. User administration procedures can enhance the security and accountability of the user accounts and access rights by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, user administration procedures are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the rules and tasks for administering the users. System backup documentation is documentation that records the information and details about the system backup processes, such as the backup frequency, type, location, retention, and recovery. System backup documentation can increase the availability and resilience of the system by ensuring that the system data and configurations can be restored in case of a loss or damage. However, system backup documentation is not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because it does not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the backup and recovery of the system configurations.

 In the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, the layer that is responsible for the transmission of binary data over a communications network is the Physical Layer. The OSI model is a conceptual framework or a reference model that describes or defines how the different components or elements of a communications network interact or communicate with each other, using a layered or a modular approach. The OSI model consists of seven layers, each with a specific function or role, and each communicating or interfacing with the adjacent layers. The Physical Layer is the lowest or the first layer of the OSI model, and it is responsible for the transmission of binary data over a communications network, which means that it is responsible for converting or encoding the data or the information into electrical signals, optical signals, or radio waves, and sending or receiving them over the physical medium or the channel, such as the cable, the fiber, or the air. The Physical Layer is also responsible for defining or specifying the physical characteristics or the properties of the physical medium or the channel, such as the voltage, the frequency, the bandwidth, or the modulation. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, page 101; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 158

The primary concern when using an Internet browser to access a cloud-based service is the vulnerabilities within protocols that can expose confidential data. Protocols are the rules and formats that govern the communication and exchange of data between systems or applications. Protocols can have vulnerabilities or flaws that can be exploited by attackers to intercept, modify, or steal the data. For example, some protocols may not provide adequate encryption, authentication, or integrity for the data, or they may have weak or outdated algorithms, keys, or certificates. When using an Internet browser to access a cloud-based service, the data may be transmitted over various protocols, such as HTTP, HTTPS, SSL, TLS, etc. If any of these protocols are vulnerable, the data may be compromised, especially if the data is sensitive or confidential. Therefore, it is important to use secure and updated protocols, as well as to monitor and patch any vulnerabilities12 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, p. 338; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 4: Communication and Network Security, p. 456.

 For an organization considering two-factor authentication for secure network access, the most secure option is smart card and biometrics. A smart card is a physical device that contains a microchip or a magnetic stripe that stores information, such as a digital certificate, a private key, or a personal identification number (PIN). A biometric is a physical or behavioral characteristic of a user that can be measured and compared, such as a fingerprint, a retina scan, a voice print, or a facial recognition. Smart card and biometrics are two different types of factors that can provide strong and reliable authentication for network access. A smart card can prove that the user has a valid credential or key, while a biometric can prove that the user is who they claim to be. Smart card and biometrics can prevent unauthorized or fraudulent access, as they are difficult to forge, copy, or share56 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, pp. 322-323; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 4: Communication and Network Security, pp. 450-451.

A federated identity solution is a system that allows users to access multiple applications and domains using a single set of credentials. A cloud-based directory is a centralized repository of user identities and attributes that can be accessed by different service providers over the internet. A synchronization tool is a technology that enables the transfer and update of user data between the cloud-based directory and the local or on-premises directory. A synchronization tool is a prerequisite for populating the cloud-based directory in a federated identity solution, as it ensures that the user information is consistent and accurate across the federated domains.

A notification tool (A) is a technology that sends alerts or messages to users or administrators about events or changes in the federated identity solution, such as password resets, account lockouts, or security breaches. A message queuing tool (B) is a technology that enables asynchronous communication between applications or services in the federated identity solution, such as requests, responses, or acknowledgments. A security token tool © is a technology that generates and validates digital tokens that contain user credentials and attributes for authentication and authorization purposes in the federated identity solution. These technologies are not prerequisites for populating the cloud-based directory, but they are components or features of a federated identity solution. Therefore, A, B, and C are incorrect answers.

The activity that best identifies operational problems, security misconfigurations, and malicious attacks is periodic log reviews. Log reviews are the process of examining and analyzing the records of events or activities that occur on a system or network, such as user actions, system errors, security alerts, or network traffic. Periodic log reviews can help to identify operational problems, such as system failures, performance issues, or configuration errors, by detecting anomalies, trends, or patterns in the log data. Periodic log reviews can also help to identify security misconfigurations, such as weak passwords, open ports, or missing patches, by comparing the log data with the security policies, standards, or baselines. Periodic log reviews can also help to identify malicious attacks, such as unauthorized access, data breaches, or denial of service, by recognizing signs of intrusion, compromise, or exploitation in the log data. The other options are not the best activities to identify operational problems, security misconfigurations, and malicious attacks, but rather different types of activities. Policy documentation review is the process of examining and evaluating the documents that define the rules and guidelines for the system or network security, such as policies, procedures, or standards. Policy documentation review can help to ensure the completeness, consistency, and compliance of the security documents, but not to identify the actual problems or attacks. Authentication validation is the process of verifying and confirming the identity and credentials of a user or device that requests access to a system or network, such as passwords, tokens, or certificates. Authentication validation can help to prevent unauthorized access, but not to identify the existing problems or attacks. Interface testing is the process of checking and evaluating the functionality, usability, and reliability of the interfaces between different components or systems, such as modules, applications, or networks. Interface testing can help to ensure the compatibility, interoperability, and integration of the interfaces, but not to identify the problems or attacks. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, p. 377; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, p. 405.